The concept of authority in ancient Grecian culture centers heavily on two powers within the structure of society. First, is the divine seat of the gods, supreme power to which all mankind is submissive; and second, is the position of the adult male, most often portrayed in political, military, or household offices. Subservient to both is the married woman, or “kyria” who, apart from her husband’s overarching authority, holds limited power over the household—the slaves, children, and animals.1 From this hierarchical structure inevitably comes a an innate, human yearning for higher offices, often at the expense of overall societal well-being. The works of Aristophanes, particularly his two comic plays, Birds and Lysistrata brilliantly depict this occurrence through the lens of suffering civilizations due to the pains and woes of warfare and political discord. Passing the majority of his life in Athens during the Peloponnesian War, Aristophanes demonstrates through his plays a heart yearning for peace, the restoration of leisure and the pleasures of life through uprooting the power-seeking spirit of war and politics.2 In the opinion of the protagonists in both plays, hardship in Grecian life arises exactly from this spirit–that which pines for higher offices and greater power. Ironically, and in the heart of comedy, Aristophanes uses the dramatic act of the irreverent usurpation of authority in Birds and Lysistrata to mock the very same act which commonly occurs in the real structure of Grecian society. The tactic appears to be aimed at revealing the hypocrisy of the viewers—those who shun the idea of women or animals claiming unmerited authority, but who in the same way, continuously gripe and grind for more power in their own political and military positions. Moreover, the comic form of these two plays enhances this absurd message of usurped authority through its assertive and mocking diction, its use of crude symbolism and metaphor, and its depiction of idealistic results, all pointing to the conclusion that the cultural and constant fight for power is not only futile and incredibly hypocritical, but a divisive and poisonous hindrance to humanity as a whole.
Disrespectful, assertive, and mocking diction is a common feature of Aristophanic comedy. In general, comedy in ancient Greece was a tool used to pry at the consciences of the audience, to rebuke dysfunctional systems, to mock incurable flaws of humanity, and ultimately to present the people with applicable thoughts for improving society.3 Thus, the blatant presence of unashamed, controversial, and revolutionary language in Aristophanes plays is the very aspect that enables him to “shake the pillars of society until everyone is covered with the white plaster falling from the ceiling” (Payne 316). The language was intended to shock, enlighten, inspire laughter and, in the case of Birds and Lysistrata, to evoke a sensation of unrest regarding usurpation of power.
In the early lines of Birds, the protagonists, Euelpides and Peisetairos complain of the societal flaws of Athens, mocking it as they run away; “Cicadas whine each year a month or two while sitting in trees, but Athenians sit in courts and whine throughout their lives!” (Aristophanes 39-41). Later in the text, they find themselves in the presence of the bird Leader who, unaware of their intentions (as well as unwilling to listen to them), threatens an attack; “Ee-ee! Advance! Direct your beaks! No holding back from combat. Now pluck and stab and mutilate!” (366-368). It is evident in this passage that there is mockery in the language of the bird Leader through Aristophanes’ pen, as the birds are acting toward humans as humans often do toward each other or toward other animals, reversing the roles of power and highlighting the absurdity of the near outbreak of unnecessary fighting. Further in the encounter, Peisetairos explains the purpose of their arrival, and in doing so, blatantly blasphemes Zeus, “Ask Zeus to give back power. And if at first he just declines, and won’t concede your claim, declare a holy war on him and ban the gods from travelling” (553-556). The words “declare” and “ban,” coming from the mouth of mortals and directed at the divine power of the gods reveal an unfathomably irreverent and disrespectful perspective; and while Peisetairos advises the birds for such action, it is really his own heart that seeks to conquer this great authority, and his own hand that will ultimately carry it out.4 Thus, the language serves to reveal irony in the situation of these men who leave Athens due to the authoritative pining that it holds, only to create their own as they set out to find a utopia without it. This claim would not only have sparked the attention of the audience through its absurdity, but most likely would have enraged them for its irreverence and inconceivable diction—likely a successful reaction from Aristophanes’ perspective.5
Similarly, in the beginning of Lysistrata, during the oath that Lysistrata renders for her female comrades, she declares, “And never shall I do my husband’s will” (223). In preceding lines she uses military phrases like “Keep on resisting” and “They’ll soon give in,” as well as her famous question “are you ready if I devise a scheme to help me end the war?” (163-166, 111-112). These word selections are shockingly insubordinate, turning completely from the societal role of womanhood and giving the Lysistratan women unnatural power over their authority—their husbands. This image would have likely enraged the audience again, pointing even more to the hypocrisy of the societal value of hierarchical authority. The military men and political agents in the narrative, those clawing for power and advantage in war (often for the sake of their own gain) rebuke those claiming it for the purpose of creating peace. The irony and absurdity of the situation are the pieces that create such a comic view and that most effectively relay the social argument: if it is unjust for a woman to steal the authority of her husband (or for a bird to steal the authority of the gods), then perhaps it is also unjust, unwarranted, and unnecessary for any man to seek to steal authority that does not belong to him, whether in politics or in war.
Regarding Aristophanes’ use of symbolism, within these texts he capitalizes on the crude representation of culturally sacred items. One of the most significant symbols is the bird. In the religious tradition, birds were seen as divine messengers, keepers of oracles and heavenly secrets. Ornithologist Linda R. Wires expounds on this subject; “special meanings were inferred, and messages communicated, by almost any action natural to a bird, including vocalizations, wing-flaps, and night flights” (Wires 16). Thus Aristophanes directs the audience’s symbol-trained minds toward crude and irreverent representations. While still imparting symbolic meaning through the plays, he approaches it through radical and more impressionable means than what was generally accepted by the aggregate Athenian society. Similarly, the phallus was a sacred symbol of fertility that was honored and incorporated into religious ceremonies in Athens.6 In Lysistrata, it is the image of foolery, the subject of civil discord, and object of laughter. Thus, Aristophanes uses the comic form again to shock, evoke laughter, and create a sense of unease through the symbolic element of his plays as well as the linguistic.
In the very beginning of Birds, Euelpides and Peisetairos follow two crows that they purchased at the market who were supposed to “show [them] the way to Tereus,” the leader of the bird land, whom they hoped to ask if he had ever seen, during his flights, a utopia to which they could move (15-16). Ultimately, they were using crows to discover a land “that’s free from trouble” (44). This is an ironic venture because crows, while understood by the Athenians to be a remarkably intelligent species, were also viewed as “ominous” creatures “of evil repute” and “guilty of sacrilege” (Wires 16).7 The image of these two men escaping trouble in Athens through the guidance of crows (the very symbol of trouble) again highlights the absurdity in their actions. Similarly, the moment in which Peisetairos negotiates power with the gods, he simultaneously cooks a meal from the flesh of “certain birds, condemned for rising in revolt against the democratic birds” (1584-1585). This situation not only depicts the irreverence of the nonchalant greeting Peisetairos offers the divinities through his action, as well as the absurdity of the murder which matches the Athenian troubles he years to escape, but it also raises an interesting symbolic observation. Meat was a rare meal item in ancient Greece, and it was generally only enjoyed by the people after mass sacrificial ceremonies.8 Sacrifices were made for the purpose of appeasing and honoring the gods. Peisetairos, however, in this action reveals that in killing these birds he forwent the sacrificial rituals, cooking up the flesh for his own benefit and blatantly dishonoring the gods standing in his presence. Again, this comic symbolism points toward the absurdity of human action in seeking unjust authority for selfish gain.
Likewise, in Lysistrata, while symbolism is presented through brutally obscene humor, it nonetheless exposes underlying meaning as well. In the middle of the play, while the female cohort is camped in Athena’s temple, the chorus of women express through a variety of symbols and puns their desperate need to return home to their husbands and beds. They produce ridiculous excuses like, “I’ll come straight back, as soon as I’ve spread my things out on the bed,” “[my] stalks of flax, they’re waiting to be stripped,” and “I’ll be…back when I’ve peeled the outside off” (730-740). The puns in themselves symbolically reveal that the state of the women is very similar to that of the men, and that it requires sacrifice on their parts to carry out their oath of chastity. This represents the situation through a perspective of necessary duty rather than through a self-seeking desire to possess unmerited authority. The absurdity here lies in the fact that they must usurp the masculine authority in order to prevent further power struggle in the war. Another significant symbol is the location of their camp—in Athena’s temple. Athena is the goddess of wisdom and war, representing the two desires of the Athenian women in Lysistrata—to act with wisdom and to end the war.9 In the same section, Lysistrata presents an oracle to encourage the women, demonstrating this very wisdom in her understanding of the matter. “Should swallows huddle together…fleeing away from the hoopoes, abstaining from genital contact, then will their sufferings cease” (769-772). This passage depicts the men as the bird-like characters found in Birds, the Hoopoes, those who contested with the authority of the gods for their own selfish gain. Thus, through these expansive symbolic references, Aristophanes lauds the wisdom found in desiring peace, and evokes strong emotion in the audience—whether through laughter, surprise, or anger—to magnify the message of the troublesome results that come from pining for power.
Ultimately, both plays conclude with unreal, idealistic endings for the power-stealing protagonists, likely provoking a sensation of injustice in the minds of the audience. In Birds, the gods willingly relent to the assertions of Peisetairos by relinquishing their authority and passing it to him–an inconceivable trade in which their sovereign position over all living creatures becomes devalued and placed in the hands of someone incapable of wielding it wisely. Proving his incapability and the absurdity of such an action, Peisetairos redefines the term “justice” in order to claim Zeus’ power as his own. “If you’re…prepared to stick to justice, we’ll be willing to make a peace. What ‘justice’ means is this: that Zeus must give the scepter back to us, the birds” (1597-1600). This statement reveals the selfish intent behind the aggressive actions of Cloud-cuckoo-land toward the gods and humanity. The birds, and particularly Peisetairos, provoked war-like unrest between the groups through their craving for power, just as the politicians and warriors of Athens appeared to do in Aristophanes’ opinion through their continuous combat and bickering debates.10
They also mocked the gods for allegedly not having “[stuck] to justice,” assuming the gods to be unjust while demonstrating firsthand the actions of injustice in their usurpation of divine power. Thus, while Peisetairos rides the victorious chariot in the end, adorned as a god, and praised by the chorus, “We salute you, brilliant victor, highest of gods!” portraying a happy ending, ideal for the citizens of Cloud-cuckoo-land, it is severely problematic for the Athenian audience observing the celebration (1763). The irreverence and disregard for the sovereignty of the gods is shocking, shameful in Athenian society. Classics scholar, Robert Payne writes in his book, Ancient Greece: The Triumph of a Culture, that it is a mystery why “Aristophanes was never arrested for corrupting the young and causing untold damage to the gods” (Payne 316). Regardless of this mystery, it is ostensibly clear that his works were intended to shock and arouse the audience with hypocritical frustration regarding the selfish desire for power of the characters within them.
In the last lines of Lysistrata, a similar sensation likely prevails through the finale. The men of Sparta and Athens come together to make peace simply on the grounds of the mutual and extreme sexual pain forced upon them through the conditional celibacy of their wives. “The conditions speak for themselves. We badly need an offer of terms of peace” (1080-1081). This resolution came only through Lysistrata’s action of usurping masculine authority and exacting it over the men through female celibacy. Ultimately, this action is recognized by the Athenian men as praiseworthy by the end of the narrative as they seek out her wisdom and mediation to resolve the conflict; “We ought to call Lysistrata at once. There’s no one else who knows the way to peace” (1104-1105). In a very authoritative manner, Lysistrata then leads them through relinquishing their desired power over the other and resolving for equality, harmony, and friendship. It concludes again with a happy ending, the spouses reunited and relieved, and Lysistrata praised for her bold and wise actions. This end, however, like that of Birds, would likely enflame frustration from the male audience at the idea of such an audacious woman and the disrespectful actions toward the authority of the masculine figure. It is this sentiment exactly, however, that enables the comic yet profound message to emerge through idealistic endings. It is mockery to depict such an impossible world and have it conclude with such beauty, perfection, and happiness. At the same time, though, the frustration that Aristophanes provokes through the unrealistic conclusions draws attention to the hypocrisy of many figures in political and military power who seek the same end of increased authority for the sake of personal gain. Ultimately, it is this tactic of comic reflection that produces a message valuing universal peace, and encouraging humble service over the common self-centered hunger for power and greater authority.
May 10, 2019
End Notes:
- The structure of society with respect to religion (the position of the gods) and civic duties and rights (roles of male and female citizens) is outlined in James Renshaw’s book, In Search of the Greeks. See “References” and pages 1-6 for the role of religion and Greek gods, and pages 135-161 for gender roles.
- In Robert Payne’s Ancient Greece: The Triumph of a Culture, there is a section titled “Aristophanes,” outlining a history of his life, philosophy, and works (see “References” and pages 307-320).
- In Greek Culture and Thought by La Rue Van Hook there is a chapter titled “Athenian Comedy” in which the author depicts the aspects of Aristophanic comedy (see “References” and pages 212-215 of the text).
- See lines 1565 through 1764 in Birds for the final portion of the play where Peisetairos negotiates with the gods to receive all the power of the gods.
- Again in Robert Payne’s book, Ancient Greece: The Triumph of a Culture. The chapter on Aristophanes expresses his intent to capture the audience in this way. He desired to shock them on purpose (see pages 307-320).
- Again in James Renshaw’s In Search of the Greeks, the section titled “Athenian Women” contains information regarding an annual ceremony/festival in which the married women of Athens would take over policy for three days. During their celebrations, they would gather graven images of male genitalia, praying for fertility and fruitful blessing upon the city. The men highly respected this event and thought it, “vital to the prosperity of their society” (see page 161).
- Details of omen interpretations—particularly those which pertain to birds, a tradition called “augury”—are outlined in James Renshaw’s In Search of the Greeks in the section titled “Greek Religion” (see page 20-22).
- Again in Renshaw’s In Search of the Greeks in the section titled “Greek Religion,” there is a subsection centering on the practice of animal sacrifice. “Meat was not common to the Greek diet, and a sacrifice was usually the one special occasion when Greeks could eat it” (see pages 23-25). It also explains that after a sacrifice, the intestines of the animal would be inspected for omens. Thus the only time animals were intentionally killed was for sacrificial appeasement to the gods, and for fortune-telling.
- Again in Robert Payne’s Ancient Greece: The Triumph of a Culture, there is a section titled “The Coming of the Gods,” and a subsection devoted to the cultural depiction of Athena; her role and her characteristics (see pages 54-57).
- In Robert Payne’s Ancient Greece: The Triumph of a Culture, in the section titled “Aristophanes,” it explains his sentiments toward politicians and warfare. He was a pacifist who longed for peace and happiness in life, and his works portray this (see “References” and pages 307-320).
Works Cited:
Aristophanes. Birds and Other Plays. Oxford University Press, Inc., New York, 2008.
Payne, Robert. Ancient Greece: The Triumph of a Culture. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, 1964.
Wires, Linda R. The Double-crested Cormorant: Plight of a Feathered Pariah.Ch.1, “Aristotle’s Raven: An Introduction to Cormorants.” Yale University Press, 2014. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vm3rj.5.
References:
Payne, Robert. Ancient Greece: The Triumph of a Culture. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, 1964.
Renshaw, James. In Search of the Greeks. Bristol Classical Press, London, 2008.
Van Hook, La Rue. Greek Life and Thought: A Portrayal of Greek Civilization. Columbia University Press, New York, 1933.